Key Words and Meanings - Year 12 Psychology

• Social Influence and Research Methods

  Independent variable	Some aspect of the experimental situation that is manipulated by the researcher - or changes naturally - so the effect of the DV can be measured.
  Dependent variable	The variable that is measured by the researcher. Any effect on the DV should be caused by changes in the IV.
  Standardisation	Using exactly the same formalised procedures and instructions for all participants in a research study.
  Demand characteristics	Any change in participants behaviour as a result of them becoming aware of the aims of the research study.
  Investigator effects	Any effect of the investigator's behaviour (conscious or unconscious) on the research outcome.
  Conformity	A change in a persons behaviour opinions as a result of real or imagined pressure from a person or group of people.
  Internalisation	A deep type of conformity where we take on the majority view because we accept it as correct. It leads to a far-reaching and permanent change in behaviour even when the group is absent.
  Identification	A moderate type of conformity where we act in the same way with the group because we value it and want to be part of it. But we don't necessarily agree with what the majority believes.
  Compliance	A superficial and temporary type of conformity where we outwardly go along the majority view, but we privately disagree with it. The change in our behaviour only lasts as long as the group is monitoring us.
  Obedience	A form of social influence in which an individual follows a direct order. The person issuing the order is usually a figure of authority who has the power to punish when obedient behaviour is not forthcoming.

• Research Methods, Memory and Psychopathology

  Episodic memory	A long-term memory store for personal events. It includes memories of when the events occurred and of the people, objects, places and behaviours involved. Memories from this store have to be retrieved consciously and with effort.
  Semantic memory	A long-term memory store for our knowledge of the world. This includes facts and our knowledge of what words and concepts mean. These memories usually need to be recalled deliberately.
  Procedural memory	A long term memory store for our knowledge of how to do things. This includes memories of learned skills. We usually recall these memories without making a conscious or deliberate effort.
  Proactive interference	Forgetting occurs when older memories, already stored, disrupt the recall of newer memories. The degree of forgetting is greater when the memories are similar.
  Retroactive interference	Forgetting occurs when newer memories disrupt the recall of older memories already stored. The degree of forgetting is greater when the memories are similar.
  Validity	The extent to which a measure actually measures what it claims to.
  Reliability	Refers to the consistency of a study
  Deviation from social norms	A definition of abnormality which considers behaviour to abnormal when it does not adhere to accepted social norms
  Statistical infrequency	Abnormality is defined as behaviour which is statistically rare.
  Cultural relativism	The view that behaviour can only be studied within the context of the culture in which it originates

• Approaches and Bio-Psychology

  Classical conditioning	Learning by association.
  Operant conditioning	Learning by reward and consequences.
  Behaviourism	The view that human behaviour can be explained in terms of conditioning within a stimulus/response relationship in the environment.
  Social Learning Theory	A learning theory which acts as a bridge between behaviourism and cognitive theory acknowledging mental processes in learning.
  Vicarious reinforcement	Reinforcement which is not directly experienced but occurs through observing someone else being reinforced for a behaviour.
  Gland	An organ in the body that synthesises substances such as hormones.
  Hormones	Chemical substances that circulate in the bloodstream and only affect target organs. They are produced in large quantities but disappear quickly. Their effects are very powerful.
  Sensory Neurons	These carry messages from the peripheral nervous system to the CNS. They have long dendrites and short axons.
  Relay neurons	These connect the sensory neurons to the motor or other relay neurons. They have short dendrites and short axons.
  Motor neurons	These connect the CNS to effectors such as muscles and glands. They have short dendrites and long axons.

• Social Influence and Research Methods

  Pilot study	A small scale version of an investigation that takes place before the real investigation is conducted. The aim is to check that procedures, materials, measuring scales etc., work and to allow the researcher to make changes or modifications if necessary.
  Behavioural categories	When a target behaviour is broken up into components that are observable and measurable.
  Event sampling	A target behaviour or event is first established then the researcher records this event every time it occurs.
  Time sampling	A target individual or group is first established then the researcher records their behaviour in a fixed time frame, say ever 60 seconds.
  Agentic state	A mental state where we feel no personal responsibility for our behaviour because we believe ourselves to be acting for an authority figure, i.e. as their agent.
  Dispositional explanation	Any explanation of behaviour that highlights the importance of the individual's personality. Such as explanations that are often contrasted with situational explanations.
  Authoritarian personality	A type of personality that Adorno argued was especially susceptible to obeying people in authority. Such as individuals who are also thought to be submissive to those of higher status and dismissive of inferiors.
  Locus of control	Refers to the sense we each have about what directs events in our lives. Internals believe they are mostly responsible for what happens to them (internal locus of control). Externals believe it is mainly a matter of luck or other outside forces.
  Minority influence	A form of social influence in which a minority of people (sometimes just one person) persuade others to adopt their beliefs, attitudes or behaviours.
  Peer review	The assessment of scientific work by others who are specialists in the same field, to ensure that any research intended for publication is of high quality.

• Psychopathology, Memory and Attachment psychology

  Obsessions	Thoughts that reoccur over and over again. Around 90% of OCD sufferers experience these.
  Compulsions	Repetitive actions which OCD sufferers feel compelled to complete. These compulsions tend to reduce anxiety for the sufferer.
  Reciprocity	A description of how two people interact. Mother-infant interaction is reciprocal in that both infant and mother respond to each other's signals and each elicits a response from the other.
  Interactional synchrony	Mother and infant reflect both the actions and emotions of the other and do this in a co-ordinated (synchronised) way.
  Schema	A cognitive framework which organises and interprets information in the brain.
  Negative Triad	A cognitive approach to understanding depression. The focus is on how thoughts about the self, future and the world around them can lead to an individual feeling depressed.
  CBT	Cognitive behavioural therapy works on changing maladaptive thoughts and beliefs to rational and adaptive thoughts and beliefs.
  Phobias	A group of mental disorders characterised by high levels of anxiety in response to a phobic stimulus.
  Systematic desensitisation	A behavioural therapy for phobias and some other anxiety disorders. Clients are gradually exposed to their phobic stimulus under relaxing conditions until anxiety is extinguished.
  Flooding	A form of behavioural therapy used to treat phobias and some other anxiety disorders. A client is exposed to an extreme form of their phobic stimulus until anxiety is extinguished.

• Statistical analysis and Attachment psychology

  Monotropy	A term sometimes used to describe Bowlby's theory. The mono means 'one' and indicates that one particular attachment is different from all others and of central importance to the child's development.
  Internal working models	The mental representations we all carry with us for our attachment to our primary caregiver. They are important in affecting our future relationships because they carry our perception of what relationships are like.
  Secure attachment	Generally thought of as being the most desirable attachment type, associated with psychologically healthy outcome. In the Strange Situation this is shown by moderate stranger and separation anxiety and ease of comfort on reunion.
  Insecure-avoidant attachment	An attachment type characterised by low anxiety but weak attachment . In the Strange Situation this is shown by low stranger and separation anxiety and little response to reunion - an avoidance of the caregiver.
  Insecure-resistant attachment	An attachment type characterised by strong attachment and high anxiety. In the Strange Situation this is shown by high levels of stranger and separation anxiety and by resistance to be comforted at reunion.
  Continuity hypothesis	The notion that children who develop secure attachments go on to be emotionally secure and trusting adults
  Critical period	A biologically determined period of time during which infants develop their attachments.
  Nominal data	Data that is represented in the form of categories. Data that is discrete in that one item can only appear in one of the categories.
  Ordinal data	Data that is ordered in some way e.g. 'How do you rate psychology on a scale of 1 - 10'?
  Interval data	Data that is based on numerical scales, that include units of equal, precisely defined size.